Apr 10, 2016

心智理論的由來

(本文主要參考傑西.貝林[Jesse Bering]的《信仰本能》The Belief Instinct, 2011]第一章)


1974年,尚年輕的心理學家韓福瑞(Nicholas Humphrey)到盧安達(Rwanda)研究大猩猩,成天與大猩猩為伍引發他思考:大猩猩在想什麼?大猩猩又怎麼看他在想什麼?他認為內觀(introspection)的能力是關鍵。人類演化出內觀的重要性為何?答案可能是我們理解他人心靈的能力,是基於內觀而來。這造就我們成為「天生的心理學家」(出處:"A self worth having: a talk with Nicholas Humphrey")[1]
"We humans—and to a lesser extent maybe gorillas and chimps too—have evolved to be “natural psychologists.” The most promising but also the most dangerous elements in our environment are other members of our own species. Success for our human ancestors must have depended on being able to get inside the minds of those they lived with, second-guess them, anticipate where they were going, help them if they needed it, challenge them, or manipulate them. To do this they had to develop brains that would deliver a story about what it’s like to be another person from the inside."(我們人類已經演化成「天生的心理學家」,或許大猩猩和黑猩猩某種程度也是。我們周遭最有幫助卻也最危險的東西,就是自己物種內的其他成員。人類祖先的成功必定有賴於能夠知曉他人的心靈、預測他們的計劃和動向、為他們的需要提供幫助、挑戰或操控他們。為此他們必須發展出能夠為對方內心想法編出故事的大腦。)
「心智理論」(theory of mind;另譯「心智推理」)一詞由普瑞馬克(David Premack)和伍卓夫(Guy Woodruf)提出,在他們的論文〈黑猩猩是否具有「心智理論」?〉[2] 首次說明:
“A system of inferences of this kind may properly be viewed as a theory because such [mental] states are not directly observable, and the system can be used to make predictions about the behavior of others.”(此種推論系統可以被適切地視為一個理論,因為心智狀態無法直接觀察,而這個系統可以用來預測他人的行為。)
我們無法直接觀察他人的心靈,但可以透過他所處的情境和他本身的表現(例如情緒或作為)來產生心智「理論」,藉此掌握他的所思所想。這種預測他人意圖和行為的能力愈是發達,與他人進行合作或競爭時愈有優勢。

哲學家丹尼特(Daniel Dennett)主張人有三種預測客體行為的策略:(1) 物理立場(physical stance)、(2) 設計立場(design stance)、(3) 意向立場(intentional stance)。1987年丹尼特集結了以「感知他人心靈」為主題的論文,出版《意向立場》(The Intentional Stance)。他在另一本著作《萬種心靈》(Kinds of Minds, 1996)提供的「意向立場」定義如下:
"The intentional stance is the strategy of interpreting the behavior of an entity (person, animal, artifact, whatever) by treating it as if it were a rational agent who governed its “choice” of “action” by a consideration of its “beliefs” and “desires”…the basic strategy of the intentional stance is to treat the entity in question as an agent, in order to predict—and thereby explain, in one sense—its actions or moves."(意向立場是詮釋一位個體行為的策略[人、動物或人工物],此策略假定該個體是一位理性行為者,能考慮其「信念」和「欲望」而主導其「行動」之「選擇」。......意向立場的基本機制,是將對象設想為一位自主行為者,以利預測並解釋其行為或舉動。)
其實意向立場和心智理論的內容別無二致。不管是「天生的心理學家」、「意向立場」,還是後來被心理學界廣泛使用的「心智理論」,都在描述我們負責揣測他人心靈的「讀心系統」("mind-reading system")。這種在形骸之中看見靈魂或心靈的能力,人類無疑是發揮得最淋漓盡致者。

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[1] 韓福瑞也曾在1978年6月29日的《新科學人》(New Scientist)雜誌發表〈自然的心理學家〉("Nature's psychologists")一文。[全文]
[2] Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). "Does the chimpanzee have a 'theory of mind'?". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 1(4):515-526. [全文]


Last edit: Jul. 2, 2016

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